On this system the oven is heated by superheated water, conveyed from a stove through closed pipes, which are coiled round the entire interior of the oven. This oven has the recommendation of perfect cleanness, and the temperature in it is easily regulated ; but it is costly in construction, and the method has not commended itself in practice. Among ovens heated from the exterior, that of M. Rolland takes ii high place for ingenuity and novelty of construction. Its characteristic peculiarity consists in the possession of a revolving sole, which not only allows the easy introduction and withdrawal of the bread, but the bringing of the different parts regularly and uniformly under the influence of the heat applied. The revolution of the sole is accomplished by a handle worked from the front of the oven ; and besides this rotatory motion the sole can also be raised or lowered so as to bring either the upper or under side of the bread close to the heat as desired. The heating of M. Rolland s oven is effected by means of flues, which pass radially under and over the revolving sole. The chief objection urged against this form of oven is, that the air within it becomes too dry, which detracts from the flavour of the loaves fired in it. The use of the Vienna oven is general in Germany, and is extending in Paris for the baking of small or Vienna bread. It is egg-shaped in form, with an inclined sole, a very small aperture, and a low roof. 1 Its average internal dimensions are 12 feet in depth, 10 feet wide, and 18 inches high. In the best of these ovens glazed tiles are used for the sole. The in clination of the sole facilitates the filling and emptying of the oven ; and the confined space of the interior retains a large proportion of moisture, which gives a fine colour to
the crust and flavour to the crumb of the bread.
Qualities of Bread.—The process of baking changes the structure of the crust or outer part of a loaf, and, accord ing to Reichenbach, develops in it a substance termed assamar, which he says has an influence in retarding the waste of tissue. It does not alter the starch of the crumb or internal part, but only swells the granules, and by the induced sponginess of the mass renders it readily digestible. Well-baked bread should have a yellowish-brown crust ; the crumb should be uniform in texture, permeated with minute cavities, and without "eyes" or large air-cells. The colour of the crumb, unless in the case of whole wheaten bread, should be white ; it should be free from acidity and sourness. It should keep sweet and eatable for several days ; and when stale it will be found to become soft and pleasant by again heating it in an oven, after which, however, it rapidly changes. According to Dr Frankland s determinations, "1 S> of the crumb of bread, if digested and oxidised in the body, will produce an amount of force equal to 1333 tons raised 1 foot high. The maximum of work which it will enable a man to per form is 267 tons raised 1 foot high. 1 Bb of crumb of bread can produce, at the maximum, 1^ oz. of dry muscle or flesh."
The adulteration of bread, and its detection, are treated under the heading Adulteration, vol. i. p. 170.
BAKU, or Badku, the chief town of the government of the same name, in the Russian province of Transcaucasia (Daghestan), situated in the peninsula of Apsheron, on the west coast of the Caspian, and possessing one of the most spacious and convenient ports in that sea. Long. 49 53 E., lat. 40 23 K It is built in the form of an obtuse tri angle, on the slope of an arid hill, and is defended by a double wall and ditch constructed during the reign of Peter the Great. The general appearance of the town is decidedly Oriental, with its flat-roofed ho ises rising one behind the other, often in so close proximity that the top of the one forms the courtyard of the next. The hill is crowned by a castle, which dates from the 15th century, and the mosque of Shah- Abbas, still in good preservation. At the entrance of the harbour stands the Maiden s Tower, now used as a lighthouse, which derives its name from a tragedy like that of the Cenci. Baku is not only a principal station of the Russian fleet, but it carries on a very extensive trade, exporting naphtha, iron, linen, and woollen goods, and re ceiving in return cotton, grain, fruits, &c. The numerous naphtha wells in the neighbourhood, and the remarkable escape of inflammable gases, rendered Baku a favourite resort of the fire-worshippers, who for long maintained their temples in the district; but, though the natural phenomena display themselves as abundantly as ever, they are now almost entirely deserted by devotees. The Arabian Masudi, in the 10th century, is supposed to be the first to mention " Baki " and its fire-breathing mountain ; and the naphtha wells are probably those alluded to by Marco Polo. In 1509 it was taken by the Persians, who lost it to the Turks, but recovered it under Shah- Abbas. Captured by the Russians in 1723, it was restored to Persia in 1735, but after various vicissitudes it was finally incorporated with the Russian empire in 1806. (See Goldschmid s Tele graph and Travel, 1874; Filippi s Viaggio in Persia, 1865; Hist, des decouvertes faites par div. sav. voyageurs, Lausanne, 1784; La Tour du Monde, 1863; "Baku" in Zeitschrift der Deutsch. Geol. Gesellsch., 1874.)
BALA, a market-town of Wales, county of Merioneth, and hundred of Penllyn, at the northern extremity of the lake of the same name, 17 miles N.E. of Dolgelly. It consists principally of one wide street. Its manufactures are flannels, stockings, gloves, and other woollen hosiery. There is an endowed grammar school, founded in 1712, and a theological college, belonging to the Calvinistio Methodists. The Rev. Thomas Charles, well known in connection with the religious literature of his country, was long a minister at Bala. Population, 1539. The Lake of Bala, which is 4 miles long and about half a mile broad, is subject to sudden and sometimes dangerous floods. It is very deep and clear, and abounds with pike, perch, trout, eels, and the gwyniad, or Coregonus fera.
to Pethor, by the River Euphrates in Aram, is represented in Scripture as a seer who possessed the power of blessing and cursing effectually. According to the narrative in Numbers xxii.-xxiv., he was invited by Balak, king of Moab, to come and curse Israel, in order to ensure the latter s defeat. Jehovah, however, forbade him to go as ho was requested, and therefore he refused to accompany the deputation of elders, who had been sent to invite him, " with the rewards of divination in their hand." After the arrival of a second embassy more imposing than the first, he received divine permission to go, but only on condition that he should adhere strictly to what Jehovah should tell him. He set out accordingly, and in his journey experi enced the anger of the Lord, an angel being sent to stop his progress, who was perceived only by the ass on which the pro phet was riding. After Balaam s eyes had been opened he saw the angel, and declared his willingness to go back, but received permission to continue his journey on condition of saying nothing but what was suggested to him by God. His reception by Balak was honourable and imposing, yet he continued faithful to Jehovah, and told the king he would only announce what Jehovah revealed. Standing on the height of Baal-Barnoth, and surveying the tents of Israel, he declared his inability to curse a people so peculiar and righteous. Brought next to the top of Pisgah, and behold ing thence a part of the Israelite camp, he announced that Jehovah saw no iniquity or perverseness in Jacob ; that
He was with them ; that they were therefore strong and