640 SUMATRA Fauna. SnellcTiiann confirms the statement of Wallace that no trace has heen found of the orang-outan (Simla satyrus). The siamang (Hylobates syndactylus), an ape peculiar to the island, fills the woods with the cry "uwa uwa." The ungko (Hylobates agilis) is not so common. A fairly familiar form is the simpei (Semno- pithecus mclalophus). No apes are found on the plateau of Alahan Pandjang and the slopes of the mountains above 1500 metres. The tjigah (Cercoccbus cynomolgus) is the only ape found in central Sumatra in a tame state. The pig-tail ape (Ma-cacus ncmestrinus] as Raffles described it in his " Descriptive Catalogue of a Zoological Collection made in Sumatra," Trans. Linn. Soc., 1820, vol. xiii. p. 243 is employed by the natives of Benkulen to ascend the cocoa-nut trees for the purpose of gathering the nuts. The Galco- pithccus volans ("kubin," "flying cat," or "flying lemur") is fairly common. Bats of from twenty to twenty-five species have been registered ; in central Sumatra they dwell in thousands in the limestone caves. The Pteropus cdulis ("kalong," "flying fox") is to be met with almost everywhere, especially in the durian trees. The tiger frequently makes his presence felt, but is seldom seen, and less frequently hunted ; he prefers to prowl in what the Malays call tiger weather, that is, dark, starless, misty nights. The "clouded tiger " or rimau bulu (Fclis macrocclis) is also known, as well as the Malay bear and wild dog. Paradoxurus musawja ("coffee-rat" of the Europeans) is only too abundant; Arctictis binturong appears to be rare. The Sumatran hare (Lcpus nctscheri), discovered in 1880, adds a second species to the Lcpus nigricoUis, the only hare previously known in the East Indian Archipelago. The Manis javanicus is the only representative of the Edentata. The Pachydcrmata are strongly characteristic of the Sumatran fauna : not only are the rhinoceros (Rh. smnatranus), the Si/s vittatus, and the Tapirus indicus common, but the elephant (alto- ether absent from Java) is represented by a peculiar species. The umatran rhinoceros differs from the Javanese in having two horns, like the African variety. Its range does not extend more than 8500 feet above sea-level, and that of the elephant not above 4900 feet. The wild Bos sundaicus does not appear to exist in the island. The Antilope sumatrcnsis (kambing-utan) has been driven to the loneliest parts of the uplands. Ccrvus cquinus is widely distributed, Ccrvus muntjac less so. 1 Inhabitants. The bulk of the Sumatran population is Malayan ; but to what extent the Malay has absorbed pre-Malayan blood is still open to investigation. The Kubus, a race or tribe still found in an emphatically savage state in the interior, have been by some regarded as the remains of an aboriginal stock ; but Mr J. G. Garsou, reporting on Kubu skulls and skeletons submitted to him by Mr Forbes, comes to the conclusion that they are decidedly Malay, though the frizzle in the hair might indicate a certain mixture of Negrito blood (Journ. Anthrop. List., 1884). They speak the Malay dialect of the district to which they belong. One of the most interesting of all the savage or semi-savage peoples is the Battaks or Batahs. About these a great deal has been written since Junghuhn published his Die Battalander in 1847. It is not known whether they were settled in Sumatra before the Hindu period. Their language contains words of Sans- krit origin and others most readily referred to Javanese, Malay, Menangkabau, Macassar, Sundanese, Niasese, and Tagal influence. At the present time they occupy the country to the south-east of Achin, in the centre of which lies the great Toba Lake ; but it is evident that they formerly possessed, or at least were present in, various other districts both north and south. The process of ab- sorption into the Achin and Malay population which is now rapidly going on seems to have been long at work. In many points the Battaks are quite different from the Malay type. The average stature of the men is about 5 feet 4 inches, of the women 4 feet 8 inches. In general build they are rather thickset, with broad shoulders and fairly muscular limbs. The colour of the skin ranges from dark brown to a yellowish tint, the darkness apparently quite independent of climatic influences or distinction of race. The skull is rather oval than round. In marked contrast to the Malay type are the large black long- shaped eyes, beneath heavy black or dark brown eyebrows. The cheek bones are somewhat prominent, but less so than among the Malays. J. B. Neumann 2 reckons the inhabitants of the whole river basin of which he treats at 50,000. The Battak language, 3 especially the Toba dialect, has been studied by Van der Tnuk (Bataksch IVoordcnbock}. On the borders of Palembang and Benkulen live the Redjangers, a peculiar tribe who still employ a distinctive written character, which they cut with a kris on bamboo or lontar. The same character is employed by the Pasumahs, who bear traces of Javanese elements or influence. Full details as to the various forms are given by Van Hasselt, Volksbc- 1 For the birds see Forbes's Naturalist's Wanderings. On this, as on other branches of natural history, elaborate treatises appear in Midden-Sumatra. 2 "Het Pane en Bila Stroomgebied," in Tijdsrh. Ned. Aardrijksk. Gen., 188(1. 3 Mr. C. A. van Ophuijscn has published (in liijd. lot iMtid-, Taal-, en Volketi- Kitnde, 1886) an interesting collection of Battak poetiy. He describes a curi- ous leaf language used by Battak lovers, in which the name of some 'leaf or plant is substituted for the word with which it has greatest phonetic similar!) y. schr. en Taal van Mid.- Sumatra (1877-79 expedition). The original stock of the Achinese appears, according to K. H. F. van Langen (Tijdsehr. voor Ind. Taal-, Land-, en Volkcn-Kundc, Batavia, xxviii. ), to have consisted of the Mantirs, who seem to have been driven inland by the Battaks and the Cheties (Tjeties) or Hindus. The Achinese language is at present spoken in four main dialects, of which the purest or most cultured is that of the XXV. and XXVI. Mukims. It shows, besides the Mantir element, Malay, Battak, Hindu, and Arabic influence. The inhabitants of the Nias Islands have a special tongue, which has been studied by Herr Sundermann. The physical conditions of large tracts render it certain that as a whole the island cannot be thickly peopled. In 1881 the Govern- ment Almanac gave the population of the Dutch possessions as 2,142,873 (2894 Europeans, 2,098,984 natives, 11,289 Chinese, 1929 "Arabs," and 27,777 Orientals of other stock). To this consider- able additions must be made, as the kingdom of Achin (356,000 at least), as well as Indragiri and Kwanten (about 30,000). Perhaps a fair estimate for the whole is somewhat under 3,500,000. The Nias Islands would add 230,000 to the total. The most populous region is the government of the West Coast. History. As far as is known, Sumatran civilization and culture are of Hindu origin ; and it is not improbable that the island was the first of all the archipelago to receive the Indian immi- grants who played so important a part in the history of the region. Certain inscriptions discovered in the Padang Highlands seem to certify the existence in the 7th century of a powerful Hindu king- dom in Tanah Datar, not far from the site of the later capital of Menangkabau. In these inscriptions Sumatra is called the " first Java." The traces of Hindu influence still to be found in the island are extremely numerous, though far from being so import- ant as those of Java. There are ruins of Hindu temples at Butar in Deli, near Pertibi, on the Panbi river at Jambi, in the interior of Palembang above Lahat, and in numerous other localities. One of the principal Hindu ruins is at Muara Takus on the Kampar river. 4 The buildings (including a stupa 40 feet high) may possibly date from the llth century. At Pagar Rujung are several stones with inscriptions in Sanskrit and Menangkabau Malay. Sanskrit words occur in the various languages spoken in the island ; and the Ficus relicjiosa, the sacred tree of the Hindu, is also the sacred tree of the Battaks. At a later period the Hindu influence in Sumatra was strengthened by an influx of Hindus from Java, who settled in Palembang, Jambi, and Indragiri, but their attachment to Sivaism prevented them from coalescing with their Buddhist brethren in the north. In the 13th century Mohammedanism be- gan to make itself felt, and in course of time took a firm hold upon some of the most important states. In Menangkabau, for instance, the Arabic alphabet displaced the Kawi (ancient Javanese) character previously employed. Native chronicles derive the Menangkabau princes from Alexander the Great ; and the Achinese dynasty boasts its origin from a missionary of Islam. The town of Samudera was at that period the seat of an important principality in the north of the island, whose current name is probably a corruption of this word. 5 Mr Wenniker in 1881 found a village called Sanmdra near Pasei (Passir), which possibly indicates the site. Subjoined are a few leading events in the recent history of Sumatra. The island, or rather the portions possessed iy the Dutch, were British from 1811 to 1816. 1821. Second expedition against Palembang ; Palembang captured 23d June. 1822. Men- angkabau recognized Dutch authority. 1825. Benkulen taken over from the English in May. 1837. Cultivation of coffee extended iu West Coast region by Governor A. v. Michiels. 1840. Extension of the West Coast government to Sinkil. 1851. Revolt suppressed in Palembang; expedition to the Lampong districts. 1853. Cholera rages in the island ; Raja Tiang Alain, ringleader of the revolt in Palembang, surrenders. ] 858. Expedition against Jambi ; sultan dethroned and treaty made with his successor. 1860. Redjang added to Palembang residency. 1863. Expedition against Nias. 1865. Expedition against Asahan and Serdang (East Coast). 1872. Agreement with the British Government in regard to Sumatra. 1873. War in Achin commenced. 1874. Capture of the kraton of Achin. 1876. Capture of the VI., IV., and IX. Mukims (Achin); expedition against Kota Jutan (East Coast); emancipation of slaves on West Coast. 1878. Benkulen made a residency ; civil adminis- tration of Achin and dependencies entrusted to a governor. The literature dealing with Sumatra is very extensive. Of the older works the best known is Marsden's History of Sumatra, 1811. A full list of oilier authorities will be found in Vetli's Aardrijlcsknndig Woordenboek ran Nedcrl. In/lie, 18GO. Among recent works by far the most important is Midden-Su- matra; Reizcn enOnderzoekingen der Sumatra Ej-jmlitie, 1877-1879 (1882), edited by Prof. P. J. Veth. See also Bran de Saint-Pol Lias, tic de Sumatra, ISM; Bastian, Indonesvn; Buijs, Twee Jaren op Sumatra's Wcstkust ; M. Fauc|ii", "Rapport sur un Voyage a Sumatra," in Archives des Missions Scunt., 3d ser. v>l. xii. ; Kielstra, Besc.hr ijvin-g van der Atjeh Oorlog, 1885-86, and "Sum:it:.;s Yst-Kust van 1819-1825," in Bijd. tot Land-, &c., -Kunde, 1887. (H. A. W.) 4 See descriptions of it in TijdscJir. i-an Ind. Taal-, Land-, en Tolken-Kitnde, 1860 and 1879, and 1'ertiandel. ISatav. Gen. van Kiinxt en U'rtentcti., 1881. 5 All the facts relating to this derivation are given iu Yule and Burnc.ll, Glossary of Anglo-Indian ll'ords, s.v. "Sumatra."
