S P A S P A 369 Zinzendorfs own writings, this book exhibits the finer balance and greater moderation of Spangenberg's nature, while those offensive descriptions of the relation of the sinner to Christ in which the Moravians at first indulged are almost absent from it. In his last years Spangenberg devoted special attention to the education of the young, in which the Moravians have since been so successful. He died at Berthelsdorf, September 18, 1792. In addition to the Idea Fidei Fratrum, Spangenberg wrote, besides other apologetic books, a Declaration iiber die zeither gegen tins ausgegangenen Beschuhligungen (Leipsic, 1751), an Apologetische Schlussschrift (1752), Leben des Graf en Zin- zendorf (1772-75) ; and his hymns are well known beyond the Moravian circle. See Risler, Leben Spangenbergs, Barby, 1794; K. F. Leclderhose, Das Leben Spangenbergs, Heidelberg, 1846 ; Frick, Beitrdge zur Lcbcnsgeschichte A. Gf. Spangenberg's, Halle, 1884 ; Herzog-Plitt's Rcalencyklopddie, s.v. " Spangenberg." SPARROW (A.S. Speanoa; Icel. Sporr; Old High Germ. Sparo), a word perhaps (like the equivalent Latin Passer} originally meaning almost any small bird, but gradually restricted in signification and nowadays in common English applied to only four kinds, which are further differentiated as Hedge-Sparrow, House-Sparrow, Tree-Sparrow, and Reed-Sparrow the last being a BUNTING (vol. iv. p. 525) though when used without a prefix the second of these is usually intended. 1. The HEDGE-SPARROW, called "Dunnock" in many parts of Britain, the Accentor modular is of ornithologists, is the little brown-backed bird with an iron-grey head and neck that is to be seen in nearly every garden throughout the country, unobtrusively and yet tamely seeking its food, which consists almost wholly of insects, as it progresses over the ground in short jumps, each move- ment being accompanied by a slight jerk or shuffle of the wings. Though on the Continent it regularly migrates, it is one of the few soft-billed birds that reside throughout the year with us, and is one of the earliest breeders, its well-known greenish-blue eggs, laid in a warmly-built nest, being recognized by hundreds as among the surest signs of returning spring ; but a second or even a third brood is produced later. The cock has a sweet but rather feeble song ; and the species has long been accounted, though not with accuracy, to be the most common dupe of the Cuckow. Several other species are assigned to the genus Accentor ; but all, except the Japanese A. rubidus, which is the counterpart of the British Hedge- Sparrow, inhabit more or less rocky situations, and one, A. collaris or alpinus, is a denizen of the higher mountain- ranges of Europe, though it has several times strayed to England. The taxonomic position of the genus is regarded by some system- atists as doubtful ; but to the present writer there seems no good reason for removing it from the group which contains the Thrushes and Warblers ( Turdidse and Sylmida), to which it was long referred. 2. The HOUSE-SPARROW, the Fringilla domestica of Linnteus and Passer domesticus of modern authors, is far too well known to need any description of its appearance or habits, being found, whether in country or town, more attached to human dwellings than any other wild bird ; nay, more than that, one may safely assert that it is not known to thrive anywhere far away from the habitations or works of men, extending its range in such countries as Northern Scandinavia and many parts of the Russian empire as new settle- ments are formed and land brought under cultivation. Thus questions arise as to whether it should not be considered a parasite throughout the greater portion of the area it now occupies, and as to what may have been its native country. Moreover, of late years it has been inconsiderately introduced to several of the large towns of North America and to many of the British colonies, in nearly all of which, as had been foreseen by ornithologists, it has multi- plied to excess and has become an intolerable nuisance, being unrestrained by the natural checks which partly restrict its increase in Europe and Asia. Whether indeed in the older seats of civilization the House-Sparrow is not decidedly injurious to the agriculturist and horticulturist has long been a matter of dis- cussion, and no definite result that a fair judge can accept has yet been reached. It is freely admitted that the damage done to growing crops is often enormous, but as yet the service frequently rendered by the destruction of insect-pests cannot be calculated. Both friends and foes of the House-Sparrow write as violent parti- sans, 1 and the truth will not be known until a series of experiments, 1 The most recent attacks upon it are contained in the various issues of the Report of Observations of Injurious Insects and Common Crop Pests, annually made by Miss Eleanor Ormerod, and in a little volume bearing the title of The House .Spamw, published in 1885, conducted by scientifically-trained investigators, has been in- stituted, which, to the shame of numerous agricultural and horti- cultural societies, has not yet been done. It is quite likely that the result will be unfavourable to the House-Sparrow, from what has been said above as to its being so dependent on man for its subsistence ; but, while the evil it does is so apparent, for instance, the damage to ripening grain-crops, the extent of the counter- balancing benefit is quite uncertain, and from the nature of the case is often overlooked. In the South of Europe the House- Sparrow is in some measure replaced by two allied species, P. hispaniolensis and P. Halite, whose habits are essentially identical with its own ; and it is doubtful whether the Sparrow of India, /'. indicus, is specifically distinct ; but Africa has several members of the genus which are decidedly so. 3. The TREE-SPARKOW, the Fringilla montana of Linnseus and Passer montanus of modern writers, in appearance much resembling the House-Sparrow, but easily distinguishable by its reddish-brown crown, the black patch on the sides of its neck, and its doubly- barred wings, 2 is a much more local species, in England generally frequenting the rows of pollard-willows that line so many rivers and canals, in the holes of which it breeds ; but in some Eastern countries, and especially in China, it frequents houses, even in towns, and so fills the place of the House-Sparrow. Its geogra- phical distribution is extensive, and marked by some curious characters, among which may be mentioned that, being a great wanderer, it has effected settlements even in such remote islands as the Faroes and some of the Outer Hebrides. That the genus Passer properly belongs to the Fringill- idx is admitted by most ornithologists, yet there have been some who would refer it to the Weaver-birds, Ploceidss, if they are to be accounted as forming a distinct Family, a matter which is not at all clear. The American birds called " Sparrows" have little in common with the members of the genus Passer, and probably belong rather to the family JEmberizidx than to the Fringillidas. (A. N.) SPARROWHAWK. See HAWK. SPARTA, after Athens, was the most powerful and important of the Greek states. Her fame rested mainly on her soldiers, her military discipline, her somewhat narrow patriotism, and her intense political conservatism ; in general intellectual culture, in art and in everything con- nected with it, she was immeasurably inferior to Athens, and even to some of the other Greek states, though there is evidence to show that a genius and a taste for sculpture and music were by no means wanting to her citizens. Her eminent men were almost all eminent as soldiers, and few of them had any pretensions to rank as able and en- lightened statesmen. No such man as Theniistocles or Pericles ever appeared in Sparta ; she produced no great thinkers or philosophers ; the typical Spartan, in short, was a brave and well-trained soldier, with a decided simplicity of character and strong religious scruples, amounting to what we must call superstition, which from time to time were a hindrance to prompt action and discredited the state in the public opinion of Greece. Sparta was not so much a city as a cluster of open villages in a plain in the heart of Laconia (see vol. xi. plate I.), in the middle valley of the Eurotas, on the west bank of the river, between the ranges of Taygetus and Parnon, and built in part on the spurs of these mountains. Its situation was very picturesque : " hollow, lovely Lacedaemon" 3 is Homer's description. Taygetus on the west rises to its greatest height of nearly 8000 feet just above the city, with primeval forests on its lower slopes, in which Spartans hunted the stag and the wild boar. Sparta seems to have been about six miles in circuit ; it was not, like most Greek cities, near the coast, Gythium, and consisting chiefly of three essays by Mr J. H. Gurney, jun., Lieut. -Col. C. Russell, and Prof. Coues, but the last has only refer- ence to the behaviour of the bird in the United States of America, where, from the reason above assigned, its presence was expected by almost all well-informed persons to be detrimental. 2 A more important difference is that the two sexes have almost the same plumage, while in the House-Sparrow they are unlike iu this respect. 3 Lacedaemon was simply another name for Sparta, though some- times it seems to stand for the surrounding district. XXII. 47
