OASTILIAN.] SPAIN 351 hi jo, hoja). A very marked feature is the habitual "mouillure " of I and n as initial letters: llcchc, llccr, lluna, Hutu; non, nunca, nueve, liubc. With respect to inflexion the following forms may be noted : personal pronouns: i (illi), yos (illos); possessive pro- nouns: mid, pi. mi6s; to, tos; so, sos for both masc. and fcni. ; verbs : 3d pers. pi. imp. of the 2d and 3d conjugations in in for ien (Cast, ian) ; train, ten in, facin (horn facer], fiin (from fcr), and even some instances of the 2d pers. sing, (abis ; Cast. habias) ; instances of pres. subj. in ia for a, (sirvia, metia, sepia). The verb ser gives yes (sometimes yeres) in the 2d pers. sing. , yc in the 3d. Facere appears under two forms -facer and fcr, and to the abridged form correspond fcis, fiendo, jiin, &c. Ire often appears under the form dir (antes de diros = antes de iros), which it is not necessary to explain by de-ire (see Sehuchardt, Ztschr. f. rom. Philol., v. 312). Nai-arrcse-Aragonese. In its treatment of the post-tonic vowels this dialect parts company with normal Castilian and comes nearer Catalan, in so far as it drops the final c, especially after nt, rt (mont, plazient, muert, fuertt, parents, gents); and, when the atonic c has dropped after a v, this v becomes a vowel breit, (brevem), gricu (*grevem), nucu (novem). Navarrese-Aragonese has the diphthongs ie, ue from tonic e and u, and adheres more strictly to them than normal Castilian does, cuende (co mi tern), huctj (hodie), pucyo (podium), yes (est), ycran ^erant), while Castilian says condo, hoy, poyo, es, eran. The initial combinations cl, pi, fl, have withstood the transformation into II better than in Castilian : piano, plcno, plcga, clamado, flama are current in old documents ; and at the present day, although the I has come to be "mouillee," the first consonant has not disappeared (plluma, pllord, pllano pronounced pljuma, &c.). Lat. ct gives it, not ch as in Castilian : nucyt (nocteni), destruito (destructum), proveito (provectum), dito for diito (dictum). Z> between vowels kept its ground longer than in Castilian : documents of the 14th century supply such forms as vidieron, vido, hudio, provedir, rcdemir, prodeza, Benedit, mdiendo, &c. ; but afterwards y came to be substituted for d or dj : veycre (videre), seycr (sedere), seya (sedeat), goyo (gaudium), cniii'i/o (inodium). Initial/does not change into h : fillo,feito. Navarrese- Aragonese does not possess the guttural spirant (j) of Castilian, which is here rendered according to circumstances either by g (Fr. j) or by II (I mouillee), but never by the Asturian x. Certain forms of the conjugation of the verb differ from the Castilian : dar, cstar, haver, saber, poner readily form their imperfects and imperfect subjunctives like the regular verbs in ar and er, havieron (Cast. hubieron), cstaron (Cast, estubieron), sabid (Cast, supo), dasen (Cast. dicsen), poniese (Cast, pusiese) ; on the other hand, past participles and gerundives formed from the perfect are to be met with, Jlsiendo for faciendo (perf. fiso), tuviendo and tuvido for tenicndo, tenido (perf. tuvo). In the region bordering on Catalonia the simple perfect has given way before the periphrastic form proper to Catalan: voy caycr (I fell), wife (he has done), vamos ir (we went), &c. ; the imperfects of verbs in cr, ir, moreover, are found in eba, iba (comeba, subiba, for comia, subia), and some presents also occur where the Catalan influence makes itself felt : cstigo (Cat. cstich), vaigo (Cat. vaig), veigo (Cat. veig). Navarrese-Aragonese makes use of the adverb en as a pronoun : no les en daren pas, no'n hi ha. Atulalusian. The word "dialect" is still more appropriately applied to Andalusian than either to Asturiau or Navarrese- Aragonese. Many peculiarities of pronunciation, however, are commonly called Andalusiau which are far from being confined to Andalusia proper, but are met with in the vulgar speech of many parts of the Castilian domain, both in Europe and in America. Of these but a few occur only there, or at least have not yet been observed elsewhere than in that great province of southern Spain. They are the following. L, n, r, d between vowels or at the end of a word disappear: sd (sal), sd (sol), viee (viene), tiee (tiene), paa and pa (para), mia (mira), naa and na (nada), too and to (todo). D is dropped even from the beginning of a word : e (de), incro (dincro), on (don). Before an explosive, I, r, d are often represented byi: saiga (saiga), vaiga (valga), laigo (largo), maire (madre), paire (padre). Lat. / is more rigorously represented by h than in normal Castilian, and this h here preserves the aspirate sound which it has lost elsewhere ; habld, horma (forma), hoder, are pronounced with a very strong aspiration, almost identical with that of j. The Andalusians also very readily write these words jabld, jorma, jodcr. This aspirate, expressed by j, often has no etymological origin ; for example, Jdndalo, a nickname applied to Andalusians, is simply the word Andaluz pronounced with the strong aspiration characteristic of the inhabitants of the province. G, z are seldom pronounced like s ; but a feature more peculiar to the Audalusians is the inverse process, the softened and interdental pronunciation of the s (the so-called cecco) : zcnor (scnor), &c. Before a consonant and at the end of a word s becomes a simple aspiration : mihmo (mismo), Dioh (Dios), do rcalcs (dos reales). In the inflexion of the verb there is nothing special to note, except some instances of 2d pers. sing, of the perfect in tes for te : csluvistcs, csluvitcs, for estuviste, evidently a formation by analogy from the 2d pers. of the other tensep, which nil have ,9. It is with the Andalusian dialect that we can most readily asso- ciate the varieties of Castilian which are spoken in South America. Here some of the most characteristic features of the language of the extreme south of Spain are reproduced, either because the Cas- tiliau of America has spontaneously passed through the same phonetic transformations or because the Andalusiau element, very strongly represented in colonization, succeeded in transporting its local habits of speech to the New World. Leonese. Proceeding on inadequate indications, the existence of a Leonese dialect has been imprudently admitted in some quarters ; but the old kingdom of Leon cannot in any way be considered as constituting a linguistic domain with an individuality of its own. The fact that a poem of the 13th century (the Alexandra), and certain redactions of the oldest Spanish code, the Fucro Juzgo, have a Leouese origin has been made too much of, and has led to a tendency to localize excessively certain features common to the whole western zone where the transition takes place from Castilian to Galician-Portuguese. III. PORTUGUESE. Portuguese-Galician constitutes the second branch of the Latin of Spain. In it we must dis- tinguish (1) Portuguese (Portugvez, perhaps a contraction from the oldPor^afe: = Portugalensis), the language of the kingdom of Portugal and its colonies in Africa, Asia, and America (Brazil) ; (2) Galician (Gallego}, or the language of the old kingdom of Galicia (the modern provinces of Pontevedra, La Corufia, Orense, and Lugo) and of a portion of the old kingdom of Leon (the territory of Vierzo in the province of Leon). Portuguese, like Castilian, is a literary language, which for ages has served as the vehicle of the literature of the Portuguese nation constituted in the be- ginning of the 12th century. Galician, on the other hand, which began early in the Middle Ages a literary life, for it was employed by Alfonso the Wise in his cantigas in honour of the Virgin, decayed in proportion as the monarchy of Castile and Leon, to which Galicia had been annexed, gathered force and unity in its southward conquest. At the present day Gallego, which is simply Portuguese variously modified and with a development in some respects arrested, is far from having as a dialect the same importance as Catalan, not only because the Spaniards who speak it (1,800,000) number much less than the Catalans (3,500,000), but also because, its literary culture having been early abandoned in favour of Castilian, it inevitably fell into the vegetative condition of a provincial patois. Speaking generally, Portuguese is further removed than Castilian from Latin ; its development has gone further, and its actual forms are more worn out than those of the sister language, and hence it has, not with- out reason, been compared to French, with which it has some very notable analogies. But, on the other hand, Portuguese has remained more exclusively Latin in its vocabulary, and, particularly in its conjugation, it has managed to preserve several features which give it, as compared with Castilian, a highly archaic air. Old Portuguese, and more especially the poetic language of the 13th century, received from the language of the trouba- dours, in whose poetry the earlier Portuguese poets found much of their inspiration, certain words and certain turns of expression which have left upon it indelible traces. Vowels. Lat. 8, S with the accent have not been diphthongized into ie, uo, ue: pi (pedem), dez (decem), bom (bonus), podc (potet). On the other hand, Portuguese has a large number of strong diphthongs produced by the attraction of an i in hiatus or the resolution of an explosive into i : raiba (rabia), fcira (feria), fcito (f actum), seixo (saxum), oito (octo). A quite peculiar feature of the language occurs in the "nasal vowels," which are formed by the Latin accented vowels followed by m, n, or nt, nd : &(bene), grd (grandem), bo (bonuru). These nasal vowels enter into com- bination with a final atonic vowel : irmao (germanus); also amdo (aniant), sermdo (sermonem), where the o is a degenerated repre- sentative of the Latin final vowel. In Old Portuguese the nasal vowel or diphthong was not as now marked by the til (~ ), but was expressed indifferently and without regard to the etymology by m or n : bem (bene), tan (tautum), disserom (dixeruut), sermom (sermonem). The Latin diphthong au is rendered in Portuguese byow (ouro, aurum; pouco, paucum), also pronounced oi. With regard to the atonic A owels, there is a tendency to reduce a into a
