576 MOHAMMEDANISM [OMAYYADS. to Islam under the Caliphate of Omar II. declared them selves independent; and this led to the founding of several strong cities for the purpose of controlling those provinces. It was thus that the cities of Mahfiiza and Mansura had their origin. In the north and north-west of the empire there were no internal disorders, but the Moslems had much to do to maintain themselves there against the Alans, the Turko mans, and the Khazars. The illustrious Maslama lost his life in battle, and Merwan b. Mohammed, afterwards Caliph, took his place as prefect of Armenia and Azer baijan. He succeeded in imposing peace on the petty princes of the Eastern Caucasus, and in consolidating the Arab power in that quarter. The war against the Byzan tines lasted during the whole of Hisham s reign. In Asia Minor, the Moslems reoccupied Caesarea, and laid siege to Nicsea. Arab writers even declare that Constantine, after wards Emperor of Constantinople, was made prisoner in the year 114 (A.D. 732-733), but the Byzantine authori ties make no mention of this fact. On the other hand, they notice an important defeat of the Moslem arms in A.D. 739. This defeat, which is acknowledged by the Arab writers, cost the life of their general, Abdallah, surnamed al-Battal "the hero" whose prowess still lives in the memory of the people of Asia Minor. In Africa, several successive prefects were fully occupied in repressing the constant insurrections of the Berbers. In Spain, the attention of the Moslems was principally turned to avenging their defeats beyond the Pyrenees. As early as the second year of the reign of Hisham, Anbasa, governor of Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, and pushed on military operations vigorously. Carcassonne and Nimes were taken. The death of Anbasa, in A.H. 107 (A.D. 725-726), put a stop to hostilities; but they recommenced still more vigorously six years later. Abel al-Rahman (Abderame), the same who, under Yazfd II., had led back to Spain the remnants of the Moslem army, crossed the mountains anew, and penetrated into Gascony by the passage of Roncevaux. The Moslems beat the Duke Eudes, gained possession of Bordeaux, and overran the whole of Southern Gaul as far as the Loire. But in A.H. 114 (A.D. 732) Charles Martel, whose aid the Duke of Aquitaine had implored, succeeded in inflicting on Abel al-Rahman so severe a defeat, near Poitiers, that the Moslems were obliged to effect a hasty retreat, and to return to Spain. Two years later the new governor of Spain, Okba b. al-Hajjaj, re-entered Gaul, and pushed forward expeditions as far as Burgundy and Dauphine. Charles Martel, with the help of the Lombards, again drove back the Arabs as far as Narbonne. Thenceforth the continual revolts of the Berbers in Africa on the one side, and on the other the internal troubles which disturbed Spain, and which led at a later period to its independence, offered insurmountable obstacles to the ambition of the Moslems, and prevented their resuming the offensive. Such was the state of the empire when Hish&m died on the 6th of Rabf II. A.H. 125 (6th Feb. A.D. 743), after a reign of twenty years. He had not been wanting in energy and ability. Yet under his reign the Moslem power declined rather than advanced, and signs of the decay of the Omayyad dynasty began to show themselves. The history of his four successors, Walid II., Yazid III., Ibrahim, and Merwan II., is but the history of the fall of the Omayyads. Walidll. 11. Walid II., the son of Yazid II., ascended the throne without opposition at the death of Hisham ; but he soon made himself so much hated and despised by his debauch eries and his irreligion that even the sons of Hisham and of Walid I. plotted with the enemies of the Omayyads. Yazid, one of the sons of Walid I., went so far as to take openly the title of Caliph, and to march against Damascus, which Walid II. had quitted for fear of a pestilence which was then raging there. This step was fatal to the Caliph. The inhabitants of Damascus opened their gates to Yazid, who took possession of the arsenals, and used the arms they contained to equip new troops. Walid II., on his side, collected his adherents and marched against his rival. The two armies met at a place called Bakhra, on the confines of Syria and Arabia. Yazid had no difficulty in overcoming his opponent, who was abandoned by his own soldiers. Walid II. died fighting, having reigned little more than a year, and his head was taken to Damascus, and carried about the city at the end of a spear. (Jomadi II., A.H. 126, March- April 744.) 12. The death of Walid II., far from appeasing theYazid troubles of the State, put its unity in greater jeopardy than HI. ever. The distant provinces escaped from the power of the new Caliph. In Africa, Abd al-Rahman b. Habib declared himself independent. In Spain, every emir aspired to free himself from a suzerainty which appeared to him only nominal. In Khorasan the Abbasid emissaries were more and more busy, acting in the name of Ibrahim b. Mohammed, who had become the head of the family by the death of his father, Mohammed b. AH. Even in Syria Yazid III. saw his authority disputed. Himself belong ing to the sect of Mo tazilites, who rejected the doctrine of predestination a sect to which we shall have occasion to recur in treating of the religious history of Islam he aroused all the orthodox against him. Besides this, many of the Syrians, from a sudden change of feeling, now desired to avenge the death of Walid II. The inhabitants of Emesa revolted, and marched against Damascus. They were beaten at a place called Thaniyat al- Okab, or The Eagle s Pass, twelve miles from the capital. Palestine rose in its turn, and chose as its Caliph another Yazid, cousin of the reigning prince. This revolt also was suppressed. But a greater danger menaced Yazid III. The Omayyad Merwan b. Mohammed, who was, as we have said, governor of Armenia and of Azer baijan, also prepared to dispute the supreme power with the Caliph of Damascus, and invaded Mesopotamia. Yazid III., in his alarm, offered him the government of this last province as the price of peace. Merwan accepted these conditions, but he would probably not have left his rival long at rest, had not the latter died after a reign of only six months. 1 3. Yazid III. left his brother Ibrahim as his successor. Ibrdhf m. At the news of Yazid s death, Merwan collected a power ful army and entered Syria. Having beaten Ibrahim s generals one after the other and taken Emesa, he advanced rapidly towards Damascus. Solaiman b. Hisham tried to oppose his march, but he was defeated at Ain al-Jarr, between Baalbec and Damascus, and the Caliph Ibrahim took flight ; while Solaiman, the son of Hisham, laid hands on the public treasure, and then fled in turn. Merwan entered Damascus, and caused himself to be proclaimed Caliph. The reign of Ibrahim had lasted only two months. Ibrahim himself soon acknowledged the new Caliph, and submitted to his authority. 1 4. Merwan II. was a man of energy, and might have Merwdn revived the strength of his dynasty, if the ferment in the If - east of the empire had been less strong. Unfortunately for him, the Abbasid movement had never ceased to gain ground in Khorasan, and the chief adherent of the family of Abbas, Abu Moslim, was in no degree inferior to the Caliph in energy and ability. This Abu Moslim, whose origin is obscure and disputed, had been distinguished by the Abbdsid Mohammed b. All, the same who alleged that he had been appointed heir to the claims of the family of
AH to the supreme power. If we may believe the legend,