500 M I E R R or domestic scenes, hunting, and games, and sometimes illustrations of popular poetry or romance. Gold and silver, enamels, ebony, and other costly materials were likewise used for mirror cases, on which were lavished the highest decorative efforts of art workmanship and costly jewelling. The mirrors worn at the girdle had no cover, but were furnished with a short handle. In 625 Pope Boniface IV. sent Queen Ethelberga of Northumbria a present of a silver mirror; and there is ample evidence that in early Anglo-Saxon times mirrors were well known in England. It is a remarkable fact that on many of the sculptured stones of Scotland, belonging probably to the 7th, 8th, or 9th century, representations of mirrors, mirror cases, and combs occur. The method of backing glass with thin sheets of metal for mirrors was well known in the Middle Ages at a time when steel and silver mirrors were almost exclusively employed. Vincent de Beauvais, writing about 1250, says that the mirror of glass and lead is the best of all " quia vitrum propter transparentiam melius recipit radios." It is known that small convex mirrors were commonly made in southern Germany before the beginning of the 16th century, and these continued to be in demand under the name of bull s-eyes (Ochsen-Augen) till comparatively modern times. They were made by blowing small globes of glass into which while still hot was passed through the pipe a mixture of tin, antimony, and resin or tar. When the globe was entirely coated with the metallic com pound and cooled it was cut into convex lenses, which of course formed small but well-defined images. It appears that attention was drawn to this method of making mirrors in Venice as early as 1317, in which year a "Magister de Alemania," who knew how to work glass for mirrors, broke an agreement he had made to instruct three Venetians, leaving in their hands a large quantity of mixed alum and soot for which they could find no use. It was, however, in Venice that the making of glass mirrors on a commercial scale was first developed; and that enterprising republic enjoyed a rich and much-prized monopoly of the manufacture for about a century and a half. In 1507 two inhabitants of Murano, representing that they possessed the secret of making perfect mirrors of glass, a knowledge hitherto confined to one German glass house, obtained an exclusive privilege of manufacturing mirrors for a period of twenty years. In 1564 the mirror- makers of Venice, who enjoyed peculiar privileges, formed themselves into a corporation. The products of the Murano glass-houses quickly supplanted the mirrors of polished metal, and a large and lucrative trade in Venetian glass mirrors sprang up. They were made from blown cylinders of glass which were slit, flattened on a stone, carefully polished, the edges frequently bevelled, and the backs "silvered" by an amalgam. The glass was remarkably pure and uniform, the " silvering " bright, and the sheets sometimes of considerable dimensions. In the inventory of his effects made on the death of the great French minister Colbert is enumerated a Venetian mirror 46 by 26 inches, in a silver frame, valued at 8016 livres, while a picture by Raphael is put down at 3000 livres. The manufacture of glass mirrors, with the aid of Italian workmen, was practised in England by Sir Robert Mansel early in the 17th century, and about 1670 the duke of Buckingham was concerned in a glass-work at Lambeth where flint glass was made for looking-glasses. These old English mirrors, with bevelled edges in the Venetian fashion, are still well known. The Venetians guarded with the utmost jealousy the secrets of their varied manufactures, and gave most excep tional privileges to those engaged in such industries. By their statutes any glassmaker carrying his art into a foreign state was ordered to return on the pain of imprisonment of his nearest relatives, and should he disobey the command emissaries were delegated to slay the contumacious subject. In face of such a statute Colbert attempted in 1664, through the French ambassador in Venice, to get Venetian artists transported to France to develop the two great industries of mirror-making and point-lace working. The ambassador, the bishop of Be"ziers, pointed out that to attempt to send the required artists was to court the risk of being thrown into the Adriatic, and he further showed that Venice was selling to France mirrors to the value of 100,000 crowns and lace to three or four times that value. Notwithstanding these circumstances, however, twenty Venetian glass-mirror makers were sent to France in 1665, and the manufacture was begun under the fostering care of Colbert in the Faubourg St Antoine, Paris. But previous to this the art of blowing glass for mirrors had been actually practised at Tour-la- Ville, near Cherbourg, by Richard Lucas, Sieur de ]STehou, in 1653; and by the subsequent combination of skill of both establishments French mirrors soon excelled in quality those of Venice. The art received a new impulse in France on the introduction of the making of plate glass, which was discovered in 1691. The St Gobain Glass Company attribute the discovery to Louis Lucas of Nehou, and over the door of the chapel of St Gobain they have placed an inscription in memory of " Louis Lucas qui in- venta in 1691 le methode de couler les glaces et installa la manufacture en 1695 dans le chateau de Saint Gobain." Manufacture. The term "silvering," as applied to the forma tion of a metallic coating on glass for giving it the properties of a mirror, was till quite recently a misnomer, seeing that till about 1840 no silver was used in the process. Now, however, a largo proportion of mirrors are made by depositing on the glass a coating of pure silver, and the old amalgamation process is comparatively little used. The process of amalgamation consists in applying a thin amalgam of tin and mercury to the surface of glass, which is done on a perfectly flat and horizontal slab of stone bedded in a heavy, iron- bound wooden frame, with a gutter running round the outer edge. On the surface of this table, which must be perfectly smooth and level, is spread a sheet of thin tin -foil, somewhat larger than the glass to be operated on, and after all folds and creases have been com pletely removed, by means of stroking and beating with a covered wooden rubber, the process of " quickening" the foil is commenced. A small quantity of mercury is rubbed lightly and quickly over the whole surface, and the scum of dust, impure tin, and mercury is taken off. Mercury is then poured upon the quickened foil, until there is a body of it sufficient to float the glass to be silvered (about | inch deep), and, the edge at one of the sides having been cleared of the scum peculiar to mercury, the glass (scrupulously cleaned simultaneously with the above operations) is slid from that side over the surface of the mercury. Weights are placed over the surface until the greater part of the amalgamated mercury is pressed out, the table is then tilted diagonally, by means of dumb-screws, and all superfluous mercury finds its way to the gutter. The glass is left twenty-four hours under weights; it is then turned over silvered side up, and removed to a drainer with inclining shelves, where by slow degrees, as it dries and hardens, it is brought to a vertical position, which in the case of large sheets may not be arrived at in less than a month. This process yields excellent results, producing a brilliant silver-white metallic lustre which is only subject to alteration by exposure to high temperatures, or by contact with damp surfaces ; but the mercurial vapours to which the workmen are exposed give rise to the most distressing and fatal affections. In 1835 Baron Liebig observed that, on heating aldehyde with an ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver, in a glass vessel, a brilliant deposit of metallic silver was formed on the surface of the glass. To this observation is due the modern process of silvering glass. In practice the process was introduced about 1840; and it is now carried on, with several modifications, in two distinct ways, called the hot and the cold process respectively. In the former method there is employed a horizontal double-bottomed metallic table, which is heated with steam to from 35 to 40 C. The glass to be silvered is cleaned thoroughly with wet whiting, then washed with distilled water, and prepared for the silver with a sensitizing solution of tin, which is well rinsed off immediately before its removal to the silvering table. The table being raised to the
proper temperature, the glass is laid, and the silvering solution at