finally pass into Hudson's Bay, as also do those from the
country drained by streams flowing to the Rainy Lake river and
the lakes along the northern boundary line. East of this lies the
region tributary to Lake Superior and the St Lawrence system.
This comprises an area within the State estimated at 9000 square
miles. Its principal river is the St Louis. There are altogether
about 2796 miles of navigable water in Minnesota.
The number of lakes is estimated at seven thousand. They are of all sizes, and are found chiefly in the northern two-thirds of the State. They have been classified geologically into glacial or drift lakes, fluviatile or river lakes, occupying basins on river courses, and lakes having rock basins either scooped out by the action of glaciers or formed by the relative position of different geological formations. By far the greater number give evidence of glacial action in their origin. They abound over the region most deeply covered by the surface drift, and are especially prevalent in morainic districts, forming the southern fringe of the lacustrine area of North America. With the melting of the ice-sheet which once overspread Minnesota its innumerable lakes came into existence; and the gentle acclivity of its slopes, precluding rapid erosive action, has tended to give permanence to the depressions constituting their basins. The census returns give 4160 square miles of water surface within the State. Most of the lakes are exceedingly picturesque in their surroundings. Forests skirt their shores, which are seldom marshy; and their waters, abounding in various kinds of fish, are clear and cool. Besides the sanitary advantages afforded by the lakes, as supplying places for recreation and delightful summer resorts, they affect the climate to some extent, tempering the extremes commonly experienced in northern latitudes. The fact that many of the lakes are gradually drying up must be explained by agricultural operations. The largest lakes, exclusive of Superior, lying wholly or in part in Minnesota are as follows:—Lake of the Woods, 612 square miles; Red, 342; Mille Lacs, 198; Leech, 194; Rainy, 146; Winnibigoshish, 78; and Vermilion, 63.
Flora and Fauna.—The flora and fauna present no marked differences from those of other States in the same latitude. In a partial list of the birds of Minnesota, two hundred and eighty-one species are enumerated. Of winter birds fifty-two species have been classified, twenty-three of them being permanent residents.
Climate.—The State lies so far north as to have a low mean annual temperature, and so far inland as to have the characteristic continental climate. Its elevation above sea-level gives an agreeable rarefaction to the atmosphere, and makes the prevalence of fogs and damp weather unknown. Between June and January there is an annual variation from the summer heat of southern Ohio to the winter cold of Montreal. The winter, usually commencing in November, and continuing till near the end of March, is not a period of intense continued cold, but is subject to considerable variations. As a rule, the comparative dryness of the atmosphere neutralizes the severest effect of excessive cold. The snowfall is extremely light during most of the winter, but as spring approaches precipitation becomes greater, and there are frequently heavy snowfalls in February and March. The change from winter to summer is rapid, vegetation sometimes seeming to leap into full and active growth within the space of a few weeks. The summer months bring days of intense heat, but, with comparatively rare exceptions, the nights are deliciously cool. Hot days and cool nights make the ideal weather for a good wheat crop; and the forcing heats of summer produce in luxuriant growth the vegetable life which belongs to the middle States. The Smithsonian chart assigns to Minnesota an average temperature for the hottest week in summer of from 85° to 90°, and for the coldest week in winter from 10° to 20° below zero. The mean annual average, for all below 47° of latitude, it gives as 40°. Observations at St Paul, extending over a period of more than thirty-five years, show the following mean temperatures:—spring, 45°.6; summer, 70°.6; autumn, 40°.9; winter, 16°.1; average, 44°.6. The average annual rainfall is about 25.5 inches. While this is not large, it is so distributed as best to subserve the purposes of vegetable growth. No moisture is lost in superfluous spring and autumn rains, or in the cold and non-producing part of the year, the precipitation, which in winter is less than 2 inches, increasing to about 12 for the summer. To the season of vegetable growth belong 70 per cent. of the yearly measures of heat, 76 per cent. of the rainfall, and 76 per cent. of the atmospheric humidity. The prevailing winds are from the south or south-east. In 1880 rain or snow fell on 150 days, and in 1881 on 167. It is evident that the causes which mitigate the actual severity of the climate as felt, which produce so large a number of clear days, and which forbid the continued presence of a large amount of moisture in the atmosphere, are those which render a climate healthful in the highest degree. Minnesota has been for many years a favourite resort for invalids. The curative properties of its climate are especially marked in the case of pulmonary complaints.
Agriculture.—The leading industry of the State is agriculture. The character of the surface soil varies in different parts of the State with the character of the underlying strata. The fertile land comprises about three-fourths of the entire area of the State. The drift soil proper of the south and centre, including the Minnesota valley and the greater part of that of the Mississippi, contains silica and calcareous matter, and is interspersed with alluvial river bottoms. The limestone soil, in which there is a large calcareous element, lies chiefly on the western slope of the Mississippi. The Red River valley consists of an argillaceous mould, rich in organic deposits. Around Lake Superior, wherever arable land is to be found, it is marked by a rich trap soil. North of the central fertile area, and in the neighbourhood of the sources of the Mississippi, is much swampy land, susceptible of easy drainage, with a large tract of sand and other drift detritus, unfavourable to production. Maize and potatoes flourish, and the uplands, which support hardwood ridges, are suited to general agriculture. To the extreme north the surface, while indicating mineral wealth, is utterly unfit, except in occasional isolated areas, for purposes of tillage.
Wheat has hitherto been the staple product of the State. Soil and climate are such as to ensure a large average yield, while the superior quality of the grain has given it a wide reputation. The other cereals are also cultivated with success. The tendency to diversify agriculture, especially in the southern part of the State, has been stimulated by several partial failures of the wheat crop, the locust invasions, and the competition of the farther north-west. The area of the State includes 39,791,265 acres surveyed, 10,968,575 acres not surveyed, and 2,700,000 acres of lake surface. The total sales of public and railroad lands in 1879 and 1880 were not far from 4,000,000 acres. It is estimated that the aggregate of lands yet undisposed of, three-fourths of which may be profitably cultivated, is nearly 20,000,000 acres, exclusive of the lands belonging to the State. White Earth Indian reservation has thirty-six townships of prairie and timber land; and Red Lake reservation contains 3,200,000 acres.
Forestry.—A special census bulletin estimates the amount of merchantable white pine standing, May 31, 1880, as amounting in all to 6,100,000,000 feet. The entire cut for the census year 1880 was 540,997,000 feet. Of hardwood forest 3,840,000 acres remain, capable of yielding 57,600,000 cords of wood.
Every encouragement is afforded, both by the railway corporations and the State, to tree-planting on the prairies. A quarter section is given to any one who will plant and keep in good condition 40 acres of timber for eight years. In 1880 there were planted 25,331 acres of trees, exclusive of those bordering highways and the windbreaks along the railroad lines.
Manufactures.—The manufactures of Minnesota are yet in their infancy. The abundant water-power of the State, its proximity to the coal-fields of Iowa, its superior transportation facilities, and the large demand for manufactured commodities are, however, rapidly developing this branch of industry. The most important industries are the manufacture of flour and that of lumber. The former naturally established itself in a State of immense wheat yield and abundant water-power. It received its greatest stimulus from the invention and adoption of the middlings purifying process, which produces the highest grade of flour, and to which the hard spring wheat of Minnesota is especially adapted. Among other manufacturing industries actively prosecuted are the making of brick, pottery, stoneware, and agricultural implements, and also meat-packing.
Commerce.—The geographical position of Minnesota gives it extensive commercial interests. Two continental waterways terminate within the State. The Mississippi affords continuous navigation to European ports during eight months of the year. From Duluth numerous lines of vessels traverse the chain of great lakes, and transport the products of the west to the eastern seaboard. Three great transcontinental railway lines are connected more or less directly with the railroad system of the State. Twelve lines of railway from every part of Minnesota converge at the contiguous cities of St Paul and Minneapolis, and three great trunk lines from these centres to Chicago secure the advantages of a lively competition.
Education.—The common school system is supported by land grants, a local tax, and a State tax. The superintendent of instruction is appointed by the governor. County superintendents are chosen by popular vote. Common school districts have boards of three trustees each. Six directors are appointed for independent districts. The permanent fund in 1881 was $4,850,000, and the current fund $260,835. The State university, located at Minneapolis, is governed by a board of regents, consisting of the governor of the State, the superintendent of public instruction, the president of the university, and six others; both sexes are admitted, and tuition is free. The State supports three normal schools. Forty-two academies and six colleges are sustained by denominational or private enterprise.
Administration.—The departments of Government are, as in all the States, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The State contains seventy-eight counties, of which some are still subject to change of boundary. From these are elected by districts forty-seven senators and one hundred and three members of the House of Representatives. The State officers are a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer, and attorney-general, all elected by the people. The term of office is two years.
