and subsequently churl. Taking a less technical sense than the ceorl of Anglo-Saxon law, churl, or cherl was used in general to mean a “man,” and more particularly a “husband.” In this sense it was employed about 1000 in a translation of the New Testament to render the word ἀνήρ (John iv. 16, 18). It was then employed to describe a “peasant,” and gradually began to denote undesirable qualities. Hence comes the modern use of the word for a low-born or vulgar person, particularly one with an unpleasant, surly or miserly character.
See H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (Cambridge, 1905); F. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (London, 1902).
CHURN (O. Eng. cyrin; found in various forms in most Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch karn; according to the New English Dictionary not connected with “quern,” a mill), a vessel in which butter is made, by shaking or beating the cream so as to separate the fatty particles which form the butter from the serous parts or buttermilk. Early churns were upright, and in shape resembled the cans now used in the transport of milk, to which the name “churn” is also given. The upright churn was worked by hand by a wooden “plunger”; later came a box-shaped churn with a “splasher” revolving inside and turned by a handle. The modern type of churn, in large dairies worked by mechanical means, either revolves or swings itself, thus reverting to the most primitive method of butter-making, the shaking or swinging of the cream in a skin-bag or a gourd. (See Dairy.)
CHUSAN, the principal island of a group situated off the
eastern coast of China, in 30° N. 122° E., belonging to the
province of Cheh-kiang. It lies N.W. and S.E., and has a
circumference of 51 m., the extreme length being 20, the extreme
breadth 10, and the minimum breadth 6 m. The island is
beautifully diversified with hill and dale, and well watered with
numerous small streams, of which the most considerable is the
Tungkiang, falling into the harbour of Tinghai. Most of the
surface is capable of cultivation, and nineteen-twentieths of
the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture. Wherever it is
possible to rear rice every other product is neglected; yet the
quantity produced is not sufficient for the wants of the inhabitants.
Millet, wheat, sweet potatoes, yams and tares are also
grown. The tea plant is found almost everywhere, and the
cotton plant is largely cultivated near the sea. The capital,
Tinghai, stands about half a mile from the southern shore, and
is surrounded by a wall nearly 3 m. in circuit. The ditch outside
the wall is interrupted on the N.W. side by a spur from a neighbouring
hill, which projects into the town, and forms an easy
access to an attacking force. The town is traversed by canals,
and the harbour, which has from 4 to 8 fathoms water, is landlocked
by several islands. Temple (or Joss-house) Hill, which
commands the town and harbour close to the beach, is 122 ft.
high. The population of the entire island is estimated at 250,000,
of which the capital contains about 40,000. Chusan has but few
manufactures; the chief are coarse cotton stuffs and agricultural
implements. There are salt works on the coast; and the
fisheries employ a number of the inhabitants. In Tinghai a
considerable business is carried on in carving and varnishing,
and its silver wares are in high repute. The principal exports
are fish, coarse black tea, cotton, vegetable tallow, sweet
potatoes, and some wheat. Chusan was occupied by the Japanese
during the Ming dynasty, and served as an important commercial
entrepot. It was taken by the British forces in 1840 and 1841,
and retained till 1846 as a guarantee for the fulfilment of the
stipulations of the treaty. It was also occupied by the British
in 1860.
CHUTE (Fr. for “fall,” of water or the like; pronounced as
“shoot,” with which in meaning it is identical), a channel or
trough, artificial or natural, down which objects such as timber,
coal or grain may slide from a higher to a lower level. The word
is also used of a channel cut in a dam or a river for the passage
of floating timber, and in Louisiana and on the Mississippi of
a channel at the side of a river, or narrow way between an island
and the shore. The “Water-Chute” or water tobogganing, is a
Canadian pastime, which has been popular in London and elsewhere.
A steep wooden slope terminates in a shallow lake; down
this run flat-bottomed boats which rapidly increase their velocity
until at the end of the “chute” they dash into the water.
CHUTNEY, or Chutnee (Hindustani chatni), a relish or
seasoning of Indian origin, used as a condiment. It is prepared
from sweet fruits such as mangoes, raisins, &c., with acid flavouring
from tamarinds, lemons, limes and sour herbs, and with a
hot seasoning of chillies, cayenne pepper and spices.
CHUVASHES, or Tchuvashes, a tribe found in eastern Russia.
They form about one-fourth of the population of the government
of Kazan, and live in scattered communities throughout the
governments of Simbirsk, Samara, Saratov, Orenburg and Perm.
They have been identified with the Burtasses of the Arab
geographers, and many authorities think they are the descendants
of the ancient Bolgars. In general they physically resemble the
Finns, being round-headed, flat-featured and light-eyed, but they
have been affected by long association with the Tatar element.
In dress they are thoroughly Russianized, and they are nominally
Christians, though they cling to many of the Old Shamanistic
practices. They number some half a million. Their language
belongs to the Tatar or Turkish group, but has been strongly
influenced by the Finno-Ugrian idioms spoken round it.
See Schott, De Lingua Tschuwaschorum (Berlin, 1841).
CIALDINI, ENRICO (1811–1892), Italian soldier, politician and diplomatist, was born at Castelvetro, in Modena, on the 10th of August 1811. In 1831 he took part in the insurrection at Modena, fleeing afterwards to Paris, whence he proceeded to Spain to fight against the Carlists. Returning to Italy in 1848, he commanded a regiment at the battle of Novara. In 1859 he organized the Alpine Brigade, fought at Palestro at the head of the 4th Division, and in the following year invaded the Marches, won the battle of Castelfidardo, took Ancona, and subsequently directed the siege of Gaeta. For these services he was created duke of Gaeta by the king, and was assigned a pension of 10,000 lire by parliament. In 1861 his intervention envenomed the Cavour-Garibaldi dispute, royal mediation alone preventing a duel between him and Garibaldi. Placed in command of the troops sent to oppose the Garibaldian expedition of 1862, he
defeated Garibaldi at Aspromonte. Between 1862 and 1866 he held the position of lieutenant-royal at Naples, and in 1864 was created senator. On the outbreak of the war of 1866 he resumed command of an army corps, but dissensions between him and La
Marmora prejudiced the issue of the campaign and contributed to the defeat of Custozza. After the war he refused the command of the General Staff, which he wished to render independent of the war office. In 1867 he attempted unsuccessfully to form a cabinet sufficiently strong to prevent the threatened Garibaldian incursion into the papal states, and two years later failed in a similar attempt, through disagreement with Lanza concerning the army estimates. On the 3rd of August 1870 he pleaded in favour of Italian intervention in aid of France, a circumstance which enhanced his influence when in July 1876 he replaced Nigra as ambassador to the French Republic. This position he held until 1882, when he resigned on account of the publication by Mancini of a despatch in which he had complained of arrogant treatment by M. Waddington. He died at Leghorn, on the 8th of September 1892.
(H. W. S.)
CIBBER (or Cibert), CAIUS GABRIEL (1630–1700), Danish sculptor, was born at Flensburg. He was the son of the king’s cabinetmaker, and was sent to Rome at the royal charge while yet a youth. He came to England during the Protectorate, or during the first, years of the Restoration. Besides the famous statues of Melancholy and Raving Madness (“great Cibber’s brazen brainless brothers”), now at South Kensington, Cibber produced the bas-reliefs round the monument on Fish Street Hill.. The several kings of England and the Sir Thomas Gresham executed by him for the Royal Exchange were destroyed with the building itself in 1838. Cibber was long employed by the fourth earl of Devonshire, and many fine specimens of his work are to be seen at Chatsworth. Under that nobleman he took up arms in 1688 for William of Orange, and was appointed in return carver to the
