NOTES AND ABSTRACTS 431
I. The direct intervention by the state which the socialistic school formulates, whether looked at from the standpoint of the collective hypothesis, which is very indefinite, or from the identifying of housing with government service, mail, trans- ports, lighting, sewerage, etc., needs but little examination. Public sentiment is for the preservation of the autonomy of the person and the family.
II. Regarding the intervention urged by those who believe in the constantly increasing function of the state it might be said : (a) It is unjust in itself because it exceeds the natural function and normal capacity of the state and the community. (6) It is unnecessary, since, in different countries, a great deal of work has been done along this line by private enterprise, which, as far as comparisons can be made, has shown greater efficacy than state enterprises, (c) Observation has proved that work executed by spontaneous action is superior, because it is more stable than that which can be afforded by any system under the control of politics, (d) It could not render service cheaper, because construction by the state is more expensive, and rent could be low- ered only at the expense of the contributors, who, themselves, may be poorer than those benefited which would be a violation of the principle of democratic equality. (e) It would cause the state, which is already burdened with duties that everyday are becoming more complex, all kinds of embarrassments; and, also, would overburden state finances with imposts and loans. (/) Far from encouraging initiative and spon- taneous action of individuals or associations, it would discourage it by creating une- qual conditions, and would sterilize their efforts by allowing the state budget to enter into competition with private capital, (g) Other special inconveniences and grave abuses would follow.
III. The state has a certain and important work in the movement of ameliorat- ing cheap housing, (a) Having the responsibility of sanitation in general, it has also all rights which this responsibility involves, (b) State agents may have the authority of patrons or contractors for procuring housing satisfying certain exigencies, and for facilitating the accession of property by the family. (<:) In virtue of this general function to urge on the natural evolution, they may promote and sustain the effort of asso9iations and individuals in certain ways :
(l) By exemption from local taxes and national imposts; (2) by grants, and assistance in kind and money, thus propagating the reform ; (3) by suppression of obstacles, by facilitating credit, by giving security of possession ; and by granting the establishment of a patrimony of its own like that of a state establisment ; (4) by improving transportation so that the laborer may live at a distance from the place of labor without too great expenditure of time and money ; (5) by cooperation in the way of loans, and subscriptions under the direction of societies. EUGENE ROSTAND, "De 1'intervention des Pouvoirs publics dans le mouvement d'ame'lioration des Habitations i Bon Marche 1 ," in La Reforme sociale, September, 1900. B. F. S.
Women's Wages in Manual Work. In the majority of trades and indus- trial callings men and women do not compete for the same work to any considerable extent. Exceptions to this rule are found in the textile industries, in the manufacture of tobacco, of boots and shoes, and in the dry-goods trade. In all of these industries men and women are usually found performing the same work, though their competi- tion is often limited to a few branches of the industry. Where they do not perform the same work, it is impossible to say how far differences in remuneration are due to sex and how far to inequality of work.
In the leading occupations in which women do compete with men for the same work, payment by piece rates seems to be the rule. In such cases the earnings of women are more often equal to those of men than where time wages are paid. Usually, however, the women are inferior to men in the quantity produced.
In occupations where time wages prevail and men and women perform the same work, the lower wages of women can in many instances be explained by a shorter working day for the women than for the men, and by the fact that the competition takes place in the lower grades of efficiency. The women workers naturally tend toward these grades, while the higher grades are filled mainly by men. In such cases the women often earn wages as high as, or even higher, than the men do in these lower grades ; but they seldom earn as much as men where the competition takes place in the higher grades.
